Dictionary Definition
fascist adj : relating to or characteristic of
fascism; "fascist propaganda" [syn: fascistic] n : an adherent of
fascism or other right-wing authoritarian views
User Contributed Dictionary
English
Noun
- A member of a fascist party.
- A proponent of fascism.
Translations
- Catalan: feixista
- Finnish: fasisti
- German: Faschist , Faschistin
- Italian: fascista
- Polish: faszysta
- Russian: фашист (fašist) , фашистка (fašistka)
- Swedish: fascist
Related terms
See also
Adjective
- Of or relating to fascism.
- Supporting the principles of fascism.
- Considered to be unfairly oppressive or needlessly
strict.
- I have a fascist boss.
Translations
of or relating to fascism
- Finnish: fasistinen, fasismi- (in compounds)
- German: faschistisch
- Russian: фашистский (fašístskij)
supporting the principles of fascism
- Finnish: fasistinen
- French: fasciste
- German: faschistisch
- Italian: fascista
- Russian: фашистский, фашиствующий (fašístvujuščij)
informal: unfairly oppressive or needlessly
strict
- Finnish: fasistinen
- German: faschistisch
- Hebrew: פשיסט
- Russian: фашистообразный (fašistoobráznyj)
Extensive Definition
Fascism is a government, faction, movement, or
political philosophy that raises nationalism, and frequently
race, above the individual and is characterized by a centralized
autocratic state
governed by a dictatorial head, stringent organization of the
economy and society, and aggressive repression of opposition. In
addition to placing the interests of the individual as subordinate
to that of the nation or
race, fascism seeks to achieve a national rebirth by promoting
cults of unity, energy and purity.
Fascists promote a type of national unity that is
usually based on (but not limited to) ethnic, cultural, national,
racial, and/or religious attributes. Various
scholars attribute different characteristics to fascism, but the
following elements are usually seen as its integral parts: patriotism, nationalism, statism, militarism, totalitarianism,
anti-communism,
economic
planning (including corporatism and autarky), populism, collectivism, autocracy and anti-liberalism
(i.e., opposition to political and economic
liberalism).
Fascist movements and states in the 20th century
were typically led by a person declared the "Leader" ( i.e.
Duce in Italy,
Fuhrer in
Germany, Nemzetvezető
in Hungary, Conducător
in Romania). Many fascist leaders were initially appointed as as
head of
government by the head of
state, Mussolini was Prime Minister under King Victor
Emmanuel III; Hitler was chancellor under the government of
President Paul
von Hindenburg until Hindenburg's death in 1934; Ion
Antonescu was Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Romania; and
Ante
Pavelic was Prime Minister of Croatia under the Italian
figurehead King of Croatia, Tomislav II
until his abdication in 1943. However, as heads of government, the
fascist leaders typically wielded significant political powers, and
the heads of state like the Kings of Croatia, Italy, and Romania
were figureheads. Exceptions to this pattern include Francisco
Franco who had supported monarchists in the Spanish
Civil War but then in 1939, he took over as head of state of
Spain.
Some authors reject broad usage of the term or
exclude certain parties and regimes. Following the defeat of the
Axis
powers in World War
II, there have been few self-proclaimed fascist groups and
individuals. In contemporary political discourse, the term fascist
is often used by adherents of some ideologies as a pejorative
description of their opponents.
The term fascism
The term fascismo was coined by the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini and the Neo-Hegelian philosopher Giovanni Gentile. It is derived from the Italian word fascio, which means "bundle" or "union", and from the Latin word fasces. The fasces, which consisted of a bundle of rods tied around an axe, were an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrates; they were carried by his Lictors and could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command. Furthermore, the symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break. It is also strongly associated with the fascist militia "fasci italiani di combattimento" ("League of Combat"). Originally, the term "fascism" (fascismo) was used by the political movement that ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini.Definitions and scope of the word
Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets. Since the 1990s, there has been a growing move toward some rough consensus reflected in the work of Stanley Payne, Roger Eatwell, Roger Griffin, and Robert O. Paxton. According to most scholars of fascism, there are both left and right influences on fascism as a social movement, and fascism, especially once in power, has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the "far right" or "extreme right." (See: Fascism and ideology).Mussolini defined fascism as being a collectivistic
ideology in opposition to socialism, classical
liberalism, democracy and individualism. He wrote in
The Doctrine of Fascism: Anti-individualistic, the fascist
conception of life stresses the importance of the State and accepts
the individual only insofar as his interests coincide with those of
the State, which stands for the conscience and the universal will
of man as a historic entity.... The fascist conception of the State
is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can
exist, much less have value.... Fascism is therefore opposed to
that form of democracy which equates a nation to the majority,
lowering it to the level of the largest number.... We are free to
believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to
the 'right', a Fascist century. If the nineteenth century was the
century of the individual we are free to believe that this is the
'collective' century, and therefore the century of the State.
Since Mussolini, there have been many conflicting
definitions of the term fascism. Former Columbia University
Professor Robert O. Paxton has written that:
Fascism may be defined as a form of political
behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline,
humiliation, or victim-hood and by compensatory cults of unity,
energy, and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed
nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective
collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic
liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical
or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external
expansion."
Paxton further defines fascism's essence as: ...a
sense of overwhelming crisis beyond reach of traditional solutions;
2. belief one’s group is the victim, justifying any action without
legal or moral limits; 3. need for authority by a natural leader
above the law, relying on the superiority of his instincts; 4.
right of the chosen people to dominate others without legal or
moral restraint; 5. fear of foreign `contamination." He argues that
common aim of all fascist movements was elimination of the autonomy
or, in some cases, the existence of large-scale capitalism. Semiotician Umberto Eco
attempts to identify the characteristics of proto-fascism as the
cult of tradition,
rejection of modernism, cult of action for
action's sake, life is lived for struggle, fear of difference,
rejection of disagreement, contempt for
the weak, cult of masculinity and machismo,
qualitative populism,
appeal to a frustrated majority, obsession with a plot, illicitly
wealthy enemies, education to become a hero, and speaking Newspeak,
in his popular essay Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a
Blackshirt. More recently, an emphasis has been placed upon the
aspect of populist fascist rhetoric that argues for a "re-birth" of
a conflated nation and
ethnic people.
Free market economists, principally those of the
Austrian School, like Ludwig Von
Mises argue that fascism is a form of socialist
dictatorship similar to that of the Soviet
Union.
Authoritarian and totalitarian state
Although the broadest descriptions of fascism may include every authoritarian state that has ever existed, most theorists see important distinctions to be made. Fascism in Italy arose in the 1920s as a mixture of syndicalist notions with an anti-materialist theory of the state; the latter had already been linked to an extreme nationalism. Fascists accused parliamentary democracy of producing division and decline, and wished to renew the nation from decadence. They viewed the state as an organic entity in a positive light rather than as an institution designed to protect individual rights, or as one that should be held in check. Fascism universally dismissed the Marxist concept of "class struggle", replacing it instead with the concept of "class collaboration". Fascists embraced nationalism and mysticism, advancing ideals of strength and power.Fascism is typified by totalitarian attempts to
impose state control over all aspects of life: political, social,
cultural, and economic, by way of a strong, single-party government
for enacting laws and a strong, sometimes brutal militia or police
force for enforcing them. Fascism exalts the nation, state, or group of people as
superior to the individuals composing it. Fascism uses explicit
populist rhetoric;
calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past greatness; and
demands loyalty to a single leader, leading to a cult of
personality and unquestioned obedience to orders (Führerprinzip).
Fascism is also considered to be a form of collectivism.
Fascist as epithet
The word fascist has become a slur throughout the political spectrum following World War II, and it has been uncommon for political groups to call themselves fascist. In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some political ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. In the strict sense of the word, Fascism covers movements before WWII, and later movements are described as Neo-fascist.Some have argued that the term fascist has become
hopelessly vague over the years and that it has become little more
than a pejorative epithet. George
Orwell wrote in 1944: ...the word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely
meaningless. In conversation, of course, it is used even more
wildly than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers,
shopkeepers, Social
Credit, corporal
punishment, fox-hunting,
bull-fighting,
the 1922
Committee, the 1941
Committee, Kipling,
Gandhi,
Chiang
Kai-Shek, homosexuality, Priestley's
broadcasts, Youth
Hostels, astrology, women, dogs and I
do not know what else... almost any English person would accept
‘bully’ as a synonym for ‘Fascist’.
Italian Fascism
Fascio (plural: fasci) is an Italian word used in the late nineteenth century to refer to radical political groups of many different (and sometimes opposing) orientations. A number of nationalist fasci later evolved into the twentieth century movement known as fascism. Benito Mussolini claimed to have founded fascism, and Italian fascism (in Italian, fascismo) was the authoritarian political movement that ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under Mussolini's leadership. Fascism in Italy combined elements of corporatism, totalitarianism, nationalism, militarism and anti-Communism. Fascism won support as an alternative to the unpopular liberalism of the time. It opposed communism, international socialism, and capitalism as international socialism did not accept nationalism while capitalism was blamed for allowing Italy being dominanted economically by other world powers in the past. The Italian Fascists was promoted fascism as the patriotic "third way" to international socialism and capitalism. Corporatism was the economic policy of the Fascists which they claimed would bring together workers and businessmen into corporations where they would be required to negotiate wages.Differences and similarities between Italian Fascism and Nazism
Further information: Nazism, Comparing Italian Fascism and German NazismAlthough the modern consensus sees Nazism as a
type or offshoot of fascism, some scholars, such as Gilbert
Allardyce and A.F.K.
Organski, argue that Nazism is not fascism — either because the
differences are too great, or because they believe fascism cannot
be generic. A synthesis of these two opinions, states that German
Nazism was a form of racially-oriented fascism, while Italian
fascism was state-oriented.
Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it
had a stronger emphasis on race, in terms of social and economic
policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the
individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to
the state, whereas Nazism saw the individual, as well as the state,
as ultimately subservient to the race. Mussolini's Fascism held
that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it was
not necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural
aspects of society. The only purpose
of government in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as
supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as
statolatry. Where
fascism talked of state, Nazism spoke of the Volk and of the
Volksgemeinschaft.
The Nazi movement, at least in its overt
ideology, spoke of class-based society as the enemy, and wanted to
unify the racial element above established classes; however, the
Italian fascist movement sought to preserve the class system and
uphold it as the foundation of established and desirable culture.
Nevertheless, the Italian fascists did not reject the concept of
social
mobility, and a central tenet of the fascist state was meritocracy. Yet, fascism
also heavily based itself on corporatism, which was
supposed to supersede class
conflicts. Despite these differences, Kevin Passmore (2002
p.62) observes:
There are sufficient similarities between Fascism
and Nazism to make it worthwhile applying the concept of fascism to
both. In Italy and Germany a movement came to power that sought to
create national unity through the repression of national enemies
and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a
permanently mobilized nation.
Fascism and Religion
According to a biographer of Mussolini, "Initially, fascism was fiercely anti-Catholic" - the Church being a competitor for dominion of the people's hearts. The attitude of fascism toward religion has run the spectrum from persecution, to denunciation to cooperation. Relations were close in the likes of the Belgian Rexists (which was eventually denounced by the Church), but in the Nazi and Fascist parties it ranged from tolerance to near total renunciation. In addition, many Fascists were anti-clerical in both private and public life. Hitler in public sought the support of both the Protestant and Roman Catholic religions in Germany, but in a far more muted manner than Mussolini's support of Roman Catholicism. Hitler and the Nazi regime attempted to found their own version of Christianity called Positive Christianity which made major changes in its interpretation of the Bible which said that Jesus Christ was the son of God, but was not a Jew and claimed that Christ despised Jews, and that the Jews were the ones solely responsible for Christ's death.The Nazi party had decidedly pagan elements and there were
quarters of Italian fascism which were quite anti-clerical, but
religion did play a real part in the Ustasha in Croatia.
One position is that religion and fascism could never have a
lasting connection because both are a "holistic wetanshauungen"
claiming the whole of the person. Red
Shirts not only renounced religion but were vehemently atheist,
killing priests, and on one occasions gunned down Catholics as they
left Mass. Although both Hitler and Mussolini were anticlerical,
they both understood that it would be rash to begin their Kulturkampfs
prematurely, such a clash, possibly inevitable in the future, being
put off while they dealt with other enemies.
Economic planning
see Economy of Italy under Fascism Fascists opposed what they believe to be laissez-faire or quasi-laissez-faire economic policies dominant in the era prior to the Great Depression. People of many different political stripes blamed laissez-faire capitalism for the Great Depression, and fascists promoted their ideology as a "" between capitalism and Marxian socialism. Their policies manifested as a radical extension of government control over the economy without wholesale expropriation of the means of production. Fascist governments nationalized some key industries, managed their currencies and made some massive state investments. They also introduced price controls, wage controls and other types of economic planning measures. Fascist governments instituted state-regulated allocation of resources, especially in the financial and raw materials sectors.Other than nationalization of certain industries,
private property was
allowed, but property rights and private initiative were contingent
upon service to the state. For example, "an owner of agricultural
land may be compelled to raise wheat instead of sheep and employ
more labor than he would find profitable." The Labour
Charter of 1927, promulgated by the Grand
Council of Fascism, stated in article 7:
- "The corporative State considers private initiative, in the field of production, as the most efficient and useful instrument of the Nation," then goes on to say in article 9 that: ''"State intervention in economic production may take place only where private initiative is lacking or is insufficient, or when are at stakes the political interest of the State. This intervention may take the form of control, encouragement or direct management."''
Fascism also operated from a Social
Darwinist view of human relations. Their aim was to promote
"superior" individuals and weed out the weak. In terms of economic
practice, this meant promoting the interests of successful
businessmen while destroying trade unions
and other organizations of the working
class. Lawrence Britt suggests that protection of corporate
power is an essential part of fascism. Historian Gaetano
Salvemini argued in 1936 that fascism makes taxpayers
responsible to private enterprise, because "the State pays for the
blunders of private enterprise... Profit is private and individual.
Loss is public and social."
Economic policy in the first few years of Italian
fascism was largely liberal, with the Ministry of Finance
controlled by the old liberal Alberto
De Stefani. The government undertook a low-key laissez-faire
program - the tax system was restructured (February 1925 law, 23
June 1927 decree-law,
etc.), there were attempts to attract foreign investment and
establish trade agreements, efforts were made to balance the budget
and cut subsidies. The 10% tax on capital invested in banking and
industrial sectors was repealed, while the tax on directors and
administrators of anonymous
companies (SA) was cut down by half.
The 19 April 1923 law abandoned life
insurance to private companies, repealing the 1912 law which
had created a State Institute for insurances and which had
envisioned to give a state monopoly ten years later. Furthermore, a
19 November 1922 decree suppressed the Commission on War
Profits, while the 20 August 1923 law suppressed the inheritance
tax inside the family circle.
There was a general emphasis on what has been
called productivism
- national economic growth as a means of social regeneration and
wider assertion of national importance. Up until 1925, the country
enjoyed modest growth but structural weaknesses increased inflation
and the currency slowly fell (1922 L90 to £1, 1925 L145 to £1). In
1925 there was a great increase in speculation and short runs
against the lira. The
levels of capital movement became so great the government attempted
to intervene. De Stefani was sacked, his program side-tracked, and
the Fascist government became more involved in the economy in step
with the increased security of their power.
In 1925, the Italian state abandoned its monopoly
on telephones' infrastructure, while the state production of
matches was handed over to a private "Consortium of matches'
productors."
Fascists were most vocal in their opposition to
finance
capitalism, interest charging, and
profiteering. Some fascists, particularly Nazis, considered
finance capitalism a "parasitic"
"Jewish
conspiracy". Nevertheless, fascists also opposed Marxism and
independent trade
unions.
According to sociologist Stanislav
Andreski, fascist economics "foreshadowed most of the
fundamental features of the economic system of Western
European countries today: the radical extension of government
control over the economy without a wholesale expropriation of the
capitalists but with a good dose of nationalisation, price control,
incomes policy, managed currency, massive state investment,
attempts at overall planning (less effectual than the Fascist
because of the weakness of authority)."
In Nazi economic planning, in place of ordinary
profit incentive to guide the economy, investment was guided
through regulation to accord to the needs of the State. The profit
incentive for business owners was retained, though greatly modified
through various profit-fixing schemes: "Fixing of profits, not
their suppression, was the official policy of the Nazi party."
However the function of profit in automatically guiding allocation
of investment and unconsciously directing the course of the economy
was replaced with economic planning by Nazi government
agencies.
Anti-Communism
The Russian Revolution inspired attempted revolutionary movements in Italy, with a wave of factory occupations. Most historians view fascism as a response to these developments, as a movement that both tried to appeal to the working class and divert them from Marxism. It also appealed to capitalists as a bulwark against Bolshevism. Italian fascism took power with the blessing of Italy's king after years of leftist-led unrest led many conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable (Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci popularized the conception that fascism was the Capital's response to the organized workers' movement). Mussolini took power during the 1922 March on Rome.Throughout Europe, numerous aristocrats, conservative
intellectuals, capitalists and industrialists lent their support to
fascist movements in their countries that emulated Italian Fascism.
In Germany, numerous right-wing nationalist groups arose,
particularly out of the post-war Freikorps used to
crush both the Spartacist uprising and the Bavarian Soviet
Republic.
With the worldwide Great
Depression of the 1930s, liberalism and the liberal
form of capitalism seemed doomed, and Communist and fascist
movements swelled. These movements were bitterly opposed to each
other and fought frequently, the most notable example of the
conflict being the Spanish
Civil War. This war became a proxy war
between the fascist countries and their international supporters —
who backed Francisco
Franco — and the worldwide Communist movement, which was aided
by the Soviet Union and which allied uneasily with anarchists — who
backed the Popular
Front.
Initially, the Soviet Union supported a coalition
with the western powers against Nazi Germany and popular fronts in
various countries against domestic fascism. This policy largely
failed due to distrust shown by the western powers (especially
Britain) towards the Soviet Union. The Munich
Agreement between Germany, France and Britain
heightened Soviet fears that the western powers endeavored to force
them to bear the brunt of a war against Nazism. The lack of
eagerness on the part of the British during diplomatic negotiations
with the Soviets served to make the situation even worse. The
Soviets changed their policy and negotiated a non-aggression
pact known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop
Pact in 1939. Vyacheslav
Molotov claims in his memoirs that the Soviets believed this
agreement was necessary to buy them time to prepare for an expected
war with Germany. Stalin expected the Germans not to attack until
1942, but the pact ended in 1941 when Nazi Germany invaded
the Soviet Union in Operation
Barbarossa. Fascism and communism reverted to being deadly
enemies. The war, in the eyes of both sides, was a war between
ideologies.
Even within socialist and communist circles,
theoreticians debated the nature of fascism. Communist theoretician
Rajani
Palme Dutt crafted one view that stressed the crisis
of capitalism. Leon
Trotsky, an early leader in the Russian Revolution, believed
that fascism occurs when "the workers' organizations are
annihilated; that the proletariat is reduced to an amorphous state;
and that a system of administration is created which penetrates
deeply into the masses and which serves to frustrate the
independent crystallization of the proletariat."
Fascism, sexuality, and gender roles
see Gender role There has been a revival of interest in recent times, among many academic historians, with regard to the so-called "cult of masculinity" that permeated fascism, the attempts to systematically control female sexuality and reproductive behavior for the ends of the State. Italian fascists viewed increasing the birthrate of Italy as a major goal of their regime, with Mussolini launching a program, called the 'Battle For Births', to almost double the country's population. The exclusive role assigned to women within the State was to be mothers and not workers or soldiers; however, Mussolini did not practice what some of his supporters preached. From an early stage, he gave women high positions within Fascism, and in Germany, the leader of one of the major feminist organizations pleaded with Hitler to be incorporated into the Nazi Party as early as 1928. Fascists have generally been opposed to the concept of women's rights per se, preferring the traditions of chivalry to guide male-female relations.According to Anson Rabinbach and Jessica
Benjamin, "The crucial element of fascism is its explicit sexual
language, what Theweleit
calls 'the conscious coding' or the 'over-explicitness of the
fascist language of symbol.' This fascist symbolization creates a
particular kind of psychic economy which places sexuality in the
service of destruction. According to this intellectual theory,
despite its sexually-charged politics, fascism is an anti-eros, 'the
core of all fascist propaganda is a battle against everything that
constitutes enjoyment and pleasure'… He shows that in this world of
war the repudiation of one's own body, of femininity, becomes a
psychic compulsion which associates masculinity with hardness,
destruction, and self-denial."
See also
Neo-fascism
- American Nazi Party
- Christian Identity
- Creativity Movement
- Alain de Benoist
- International Third Position
- Ku Klux Klan
- National Alliance (United States)
- National anarchism
- National Bolshevism
- Neo-fascism
- Neo-fascism and religion
- Neo-Nazism
- Nouvelle Droite
- William Luther Pierce
- George Lincoln Rockwell
- British National Party
Footnotes
Further reading
General
- Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf (1992). London: Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-5254-X
- "Labor Charter" (1927-1934)
- Mussolini, Benito. "The Doctrine of Fascism", published as part of the entry for fascismo in the Enciclopedia Italiana 1932.
- Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 1-4000-4094-9
- Sorel, Georges. Reflections on Violence.
- De Felice, Renzo Interpretations of Fascism, translated by Brenda Huff Everett, Cambridge; London: Harvard University Press, 1977 ISBN 0-674-45962-8.
- Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
- Hughes, H. Stuart. 1953. The United States and Italy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Nolte, Ernst The Three Faces Of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, translated from the German by Leila Vennewitz, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965.
- Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914-45. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0-299-14874-2
- Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
- Seldes, George. 1935. Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
- Alfred Sohn-Rethel Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism,London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007
- Kallis, Aristotle A. ," To Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland'" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Apr., 2003), pp. 237-260. Stable URL: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28200304%2938%3A2%3C237%3ATEONTE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S
Fascist ideology
- De Felice, Renzo Fascism : an informal introduction to its theory and practice, an interview with Michael Ledeen, New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Books, 1976 ISBN 0-87855-190-5.
- Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5
- Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, Routledge, London.
- Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-511793-X
- Schapiro, J. Salwyn. 1949. Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815-1870). New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.
- Sauer, Wolfgang "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" pages 404-424 from The American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2, December 1967.
- Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227 – 250
International fascism
- Coogan, Kevin. 1999. Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia.
- Goldberg, Jonah. 2007. Liberal Fascism. New York: Doubleday.
- Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
- Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)
- Wallace, Henry. "The Dangers of American Fascism". The New York Times, Sunday, 9 April 1944.
External links
Critics
- Understanding Fascism and Anti-Semitism - by Geoff Price
- The Functions of Fascism - radio lecture by Michael Parenti
- The Political Economy of Fascism - from Dave Renton's website
- Fascism and Zionism - by Suzanna Kokkonen
- Fascism and the Holocaust - historical analysis by the ICFI
- Fascism: What it is and How to Fight it - by Leon Trotsky
- Fascism and Social Revolution - by Rajani Palme Dutt
- Searchlight Magazine
- After Fascism: Muslims and the Struggle for Self-determination - by Abid Ullah Jan
Proponents
- The Doctrine of Fascism - by Benito Mussolini
fascist in Arabic: فاشية
fascist in Aragonese: Faxismo
fascist in Asturian: Fascismu
fascist in Min Nan: Fasci-chú-gī
fascist in Belarusian (Tarashkevitsa):
Фашызм
fascist in Bosnian: Fašizam
fascist in Bulgarian: Фашизъм
fascist in Catalan: Feixisme
fascist in Czech: Fašismus
fascist in Welsh: Ffasgiaeth
fascist in Danish: Fascisme
fascist in German: Faschismus
fascist in Estonian: Fašism
fascist in Modern Greek (1453-): Φασισμός
fascist in Spanish: Fascismo
fascist in Esperanto: Faŝismo
fascist in Basque: Faxismo
fascist in Persian: فاشیسم
fascist in French: Fascisme
fascist in Friulian: Fassisim
fascist in Irish: Faisisteachas
fascist in Galician: Fascismo
fascist in Korean: 파시즘
fascist in Hindi: फ़ासी वाद
fascist in Croatian: Fašizam
fascist in Indonesian: Fasisme
fascist in Icelandic: Fasismi
fascist in Italian: Fascismo
fascist in Hebrew: פשיזם
fascist in Georgian: ფაშიზმი
fascist in Kurdish: Faşîzm
fascist in Latin: Fascismus
fascist in Latvian: Fašisms
fascist in Lithuanian: Fašizmas
fascist in Hungarian: Fasizmus
fascist in Macedonian: Фашизам
fascist in Malay (macrolanguage): Fasisme
fascist in Moksha: Фашизма
fascist in Mongolian: Фашизм
fascist in Dutch: Fascisme
fascist in Japanese: ファシズム
fascist in Norwegian: Fascisme
fascist in Norwegian Nynorsk: Fascisme
fascist in Occitan (post 1500): Faissisme
fascist in Polish: Faszyzm
fascist in Portuguese: Fascismo
fascist in Romanian: Fascism
fascist in Russian: Фашизм
fascist in Sicilian: Fascismu
fascist in Simple English: Fascism
fascist in Slovenian: Fašizem
fascist in Serbian: Фашизам
fascist in Serbo-Croatian: Fašizam
fascist in Finnish: Fasismi
fascist in Swedish: Fascism
fascist in Tagalog: Pasismo
fascist in Tamil: பாசிசம்
fascist in Thai: ลัทธิฟาสซิสต์
fascist in Vietnamese: Chủ nghĩa phát xít
fascist in Tajik: Фашизм
fascist in Turkish: Faşizm
fascist in Ukrainian: Фашизм
fascist in Venetian: Fasismo
fascist in Yiddish: פאשיזם
fascist in Contenese: 法西斯主義
fascist in Chinese: 法西斯主义
fascist in Slovak: Fašizmus
Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words
absolute, aristocratic, authoritarian, autocratic, autonomous, bureaucratic, civic, civil, constitutional, democratic, despotic, dictatorial, federal, federalist, federalistic, governmental, gubernatorial, heteronomous, matriarchal, matriarchic, monarchal, monarchial, monarchic, monocratic, official, oligarchal, oligarchic, parliamentarian,
parliamentary,
patriarchal,
patriarchic,
pluralistic,
political, republican, self-governing,
theocratic, totalitarian